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• 作者：YirAn怡然 发布时间：2022-10-15 21:13:12

  哈哈哈哈哈哈哈，憋屁的小动物和放屁的小动物都太可爱了！果然肉吃多了，屁就是臭啊！

• 作者：DJDOpenTheDoor 发布时间：2022-10-09 10:00:23

  3.5

• 作者：太白醉 发布时间：2020-12-22 10:17:47

  人 小志气大。和龙王斗，和兽王斗，少年寒宵会成为顶天立地的英雄。

• 作者：后稷 发布时间：2020-08-30 22:03:40

  适合高中毕业时科普社会知识用

• 作者：羊毛掸子YMDZ 发布时间：2022-03-20 18:12:31

  毛绒绒还是光怪陆离，都是留存于世、属于你的作品。

  讣告：日本知名插画师 もの久保 的亲人近期通过其推特发布讣告，もの久保 于 2022 年 1 月 24 日去世

• 作者：Dr Wu 发布时间：2017-09-07 09:10:25

  这种书读完，可以看见作者的心血。

• 无从驯服的沈从文

  作者：齐物秋水 发布时间：2015-12-14 09:39:07

  沈从文晚年写有一篇未完稿，《无从驯服的斑马》，是一种自况，固执己见的自况。沈从文之为沈从文，就在于这“乡下人”的性情，顽固地坚持自己所要坚持的，不依附，不阿世，即使逆着潮流触犯时忌，亦不改初衷，这是他频遭打击的缘由，也是其成就自己的根源所在。沈从文的文学世界，不是一个可以被既定框子规范的世界，如何阐释之，须一种新的眼光，在此点上，张新颖的《沈从文九讲》是好的尝试，因为他的“沈从文观”，是置于更为阔大的视域之上的，跳出“人的世界”，来到“沈从文的文学世界”。

  现代文学史的作家，能被视为思想家的，一是鲁迅，另一为周作人。而沈从文，多被看做营造“希腊小庙”的文体家，一个讲述湘西蛮野故事的人，一个风俗画卷的绘者，至于是否为有独到之处的思想者，似一直未被看重。张新颖之“沈从文观”，乃将其人生轨迹以文学家—思想者—实践者连带而起，后两者颇有“发明”之意，亦为九讲中最有价值的篇章，而沈的文学家一面，以往的理解或还是不充足的。

  沈从文之为思想者，承接着前文学家后实践者的形象，且影响着其整个后半生。若非思想者，他文学创作后期的作品不会是我们看到的这种形态；若非思想者，他不会招致“围剿”，不会四十年代末精神崩溃，不会决然放弃写作，走上文物研究的道路。

  张新颖做了一个很有意味的比较，“沈从文和鲁迅是两个非常不同的作家，但是，在他们之间，在他们的文学的深处，却能够发现埋藏着某些重要的甚至是根本的一致性”，这指的是鲁迅所言“伪士当去，迷信可存”，“高蹈的对于‘现代’理论的依附性，对于‘简单文化概念’的依附性，或者是世俗的对于‘政治’的依附性，都无从与现实经验和个人内心发生深切的关系，因其依附性，不可靠是必然的”。沈从文不是一个理论中人，他不依附权威，不依附潮流，其所有思考均来自自己的经验及观察，所以我们看从《边城》《湘行散记》，演变到《长河》《湘西》，及《潜渊》《长庚》等，那种裂变是沈从文的痛切体尝，而非从理论图谱演绎。他挑起的“京派海派”之争、“抗战无关论”等文坛论争，是情发于中，独立思考，脱口而出，却也为后来的遭遇埋下了祸根。四十年代写下“七色魇”系列文章，缠绕错结，苦痛分裂，“我们实希望人先要活得尊贵些！我们当前便需要一种‘清洁运动’，必将现在政治的特殊包庇性，和现代文化的驵侩气，以及三五无出息的知识分子所提倡的变相鬼神迷信，于年青生命中所形成的势利，依赖，狡猾，自私诸倾向，完全洗刷干净……”不能不说沈从文的敏感是惊人的，若干年后的现实恰和他的担心，“变相鬼神迷信”渗入真切的现实中，造成大劫难。有着这样的敏感，也就可以解释他四十年代末的精神分裂，外力（《斥反动文艺》等批判文章）固然难逃其责，其痛苦的思考面临时代大变局的裂变，更是内因。

  实践者的形象，是形格势禁下沈从文的自我选择，也是思想者的一个顺承结果。无思想者的角色，时代的裂变似还不会对沈从文施加如此的威迫，而若无前期的思考，他或也不会走上这样一条有太多无法预知坎坷的路。“这个代价不是一班人所说的受很多苦啊等等，那只是被动地承受；而是在精神的严酷磨砺过程中去追求意义和价值，苦难和整个创造事业的主动追求是紧密相连的。”于此一时间阶段，张新颖拎出了“有情”二字，恰可阐释沈从文的“转业”之谜。

  何谓“有情”？“（《史记》）年表诸书说是事功，可因掌握材料而完成。列传却需要作者生命中一些特别东西。我们说得粗些，即必由痛苦方能成熟积聚的情——这个情即深入的体会，深至的爱，以及透过事功以上的理解与认识。”沈从文哪里仅只在谈《史记》，他分明在为自己的现实与精神困境寻觅出口而述说，“千载之下，会心体认，自己的文学遭遇和人的现实遭遇放进这个更为悠久的历史和传统之中，可以得到解释，得到安慰，更能从中获得对于命运的接受和对于自我的确认”。

  由此看来，沈从文的“转业”，自文学创作改行历史文物研究，也就不是突兀不可解的了，因为这超越“事功”，而纳入了“有情”的传统中。关于沈从文的“转业”之谜，以往有过许多探讨，如汪曾祺就回忆过四十年代在云南时，老师对西南文物的浓厚兴趣，“他跟我（以及其他人）谈文学的时候，远不如谈陶瓷，谈漆器，谈刺绣的时候多。”而张新颖寻到了更早的萌芽，是《从文自传》中对二十一岁之前生活的记述，“无事可作时，把那些旧画一轴一轴的取出，挂到壁间独自来鉴赏，或翻开《西清古鉴》《薛氏彝器钟鼎款识》这一类书，努力去从文字与形体上认识房中铜器的名称和价值……”这种转业在精神实质上并非判然两条道路，更似是两股支流，汇入一个“有情”的湖泊。

  如果说年轻时的沈从文，是以做苦工的劲头去写小说的话（有一标志，写了一夜，趴书桌上睡着，醒来发现稿纸上满是鼻血，怪吓人），那投入文物研究的他，又是如此的不计时间、不顾身体。而最大的痛苦是，处处受排挤和压制，乏人支持，动乱时资料被查抄，甚至丧失工作机会；痛苦的缘由，是因为沈从文并不视其为“事功”，而只是源于“有情”，所以虽九死而犹未悔：一部《中国古代服饰研究》，拖了十多年方印行，大量的研究文章，即使无法发表，仍继续写下去（从全集后五卷历史文物研究计两千多页的规模，可见一斑）。沈从文一直工作到身体状况无法再支持之时，若非“有情”，何必如此。

  其实揆诸沈从文的一生，“有情”二字一以贯之矣，并不局限于实践阶段。他向来不是一个趋时的人，对所谓“事功”隔膜得很，“乡下人”性格不改，碰壁是免不了的，而生不逢时，让他碰上了最大的“壁”，度过了后半生的近四十年。不过身处“有情”中的沈从文，坚忍地超越事功之上，将自己的目光放至更远，踏踏实实地实践之，为知识分子在二十世纪的选择之路，提供了另一种可能。

  （南都）

  附：即《沈从文精读》一书，多出一个章节。

• 各章介绍(英文版)

  作者：冯佚涵 发布时间：2022-11-10 15:58:24

  

  注意：这是一本研究阅读作用过程的书，不是教你如何阅读。

  Chapter 1. The Oxford Handbook of Reading: Setting the Stage

  This chapter serves as an introduction and outline for the remainder of the handbook. After first considering the importance of writing and reading in society, an overview of the history of reading research is provided. The chapter discusses the impact of the cognitive revolution, which began in

  the 1950s, on both basic reading research and research on the teaching of reading. The conclusion of the chapter summarizes the five sections of the handbook: Introduction, Word Identification, Reading Sentences and Texts, Reading and Spelling Development, and Reading Instruction. Previews are provided of the chapters in each of the sections, and the general themes and issues in the chapter are discussed.

  Chapter 2. Writing Systems: Their Properties and Implications for Reading

  An understanding of the nature of writing is an important foundation for studies of how people read and how they learn to read. This chapter discusses the characteristics of modern writing systems with a view toward providing that foundation. It considers both the appearance of writing systems and how they function. All writing represents the words of a language according to a set of rules. However, important properties of a language often go unrepresented in writing. Change and variation in the spoken language result in complex links to speech. Redundancies in language and writing mean that readers can often get by without taking in all of the visual information. These redundancies also mean that readers must often supplement the visual information that they do take in with knowledge about the language and about the world.

  Chapter 3. Visual Word Recognition

  Visual word recognition is an integral aspect of reading. Although readers are able to recognize visually presented words with apparent ease, the processes that map orthography onto phonology and semantics are far from straightforward. The present chapter discusses the cognitive processes that skilled readers use in order to recognize and pronounce individual words. After a historical overview of the broad theoretical developments in this rich field, the chapter provides a description of methods and a selective review of the empirical literature, with an emphasis on how the recognition of an isolated word is modulated by its lexical- and semantic-level properties and by its context. The final section of the chapter briefly considers some recent approaches and analytic tools in visual word recognition research, including megastudy, analysis of response time distributions, and the important role of individual differences.

  Chapter 4. The Work of the Eyes During Reading

  This chapter discusses the movements of the eyes during reading: how they support and reveal the reading process. The chapter starts by describing basic facts about eye movements. It then describes some factors that account for variability in eye movement behaviors and then discusses some important methodological paradigms (namely gaze-contingent display change paradigms) that have contributed to our knowledge about eye movements and cognitive processing in reading. In particular, these paradigms have been used to study what types of information readers obtain from a word before they look directly at it. The chapter reviews what has been learned from experiments using these paradigms. It also discusses the issue of eye movement control in reading (i.e., what determines where the eyes move and how long they linger on a particular word) and describes several studies demonstrating that eye movement control in reading is determined directly by ongoing cognitive process.

  Chapter 5. Visual Word Recognition in the Bayesian Reader Framework

  Visual word recognition is traditionally viewed as a process of activating a lexical representation stored in long-term memory. Although this activation framework has been valuable in guiding research on visual word recognition and remains the dominant force, an alternative framework has emerged in the last decade. The Bayesian Reader framework, proposed by Norris (2006, 2009; Norris & Kinoshita, 2012a), regards the decision processes involved in a task as integral to explaining visual word recognition, and its central tenet is that human readers approximate optimal Bayesian decision-makers operating on noisy perceptual input. This chapter focuses on two issues fundamental to visual word recognition— the role of word frequency and the representation of letter order—and describes how the Bayesian Reader framework provides a principled account of the recent findings related to these issues that are challenging to the activation framework.

  Chapter 6. Neighborhood Effects in Visual Word Recognition and Reading

  This chapter discusses research on how words that are orthographically (or phonologically) similar to a printed word influence the speed and accuracy of its encoding. The relevant set of words (the word’s neighbors) was previously defined to be those lexical units differing from the target stimulus by a single letter in a given position. Recent evidence has revealed that a better definition of a word’s neighborhood includes lexical units of different length and lexical units created by transpositions. The study of a word’s neighborhood has revealed that that the activation of neighbors may interfere with the processing of the target words in word-identification tasks and during sentence reading, supporting the basic claims of interactive activation models. Some challenges to the current definitions of the sets of word neighborhoods are also examined, in particular the need to include differences between how consonants and vowels are encoded during word processing.

  Chapter 7. Cross-Linguistic Perspectives on Letter-Order Processing: Empirical Findings and Theoretical Considerations

  The processing of letter order has profound implications for understanding how visually presented words are processed and how they are recognized, given the lexical architecture that characterizes a given language. Research conducted in different writing systems suggests that letter-position effects, such as transposed-letter priming, are not universal. The cognitive system may perform very different types of processing on a sequence of letters depending on factors that are unrelated to peripheral orthographic characteristics but related to the deep structural properties of the printed stimuli. Assuming that identical neurobiological constraints govern reading performance in any language, these findings suggest that neurobiological constraints interact with the idiosyncratic statistical properties of a given writing system to determine the preciseness or fuzziness of letter-position coding. This chapter reviews the evidence for this interaction and discusses the implications for theories of reading and for modeling visual word recognition.

  Chapter 8. The Nature of Lexical Representation in Visual Word Recognition

  This chapter explores how information about words is represented for the purposes of recognizing those words when reading. A description is first given of the various architectures that have been proposed to frame our understanding of lexical processing, with an emphasis on the way they portray lexical representation. The importance of morphological structure to the nature of lexical representation is highlighted, and attention is directed to specific models that attempt to capture that structure. The model that forms the major focus of the chapter, the AUSTRAL model, is one where identification of a letter string is based on information associated with an abstract level that mediates between form and function; namely, a lemma level. The incorporation of a lemma level into the lexical processing system provides a locus for morphological structure. It captures a level of lexical representation that not only underlies both visual and spoken word recognition but also is compatible with models of word production.

  Chapter 9. Are Polymorphemic Words Processed Differently From Other Words During Reading?

  Across a variety of languages, many words comprise more than one meaning unit, or morpheme. In the present chapter, reading studies employing readers’ eye movement registration are reviewed that examine how such polymorphemic words are identified. The reviewed studies have examined how compound words, derived words, and inflected words are identified. Studies are also reviewed that have investigated whether the meanings of polymorphemic words are constructed out of the meanings of their components. More generally, it is concluded that polymorphemic words are identified during reading both using whole-word representations available in the mental lexicon (the holistic route) and accessing the word identity via the component meanings (the decomposition route). Moreover, word length plays a significant role in modulating the relative dominance of the two access routes, with the decomposition route being more dominant for long polymorphemic words.

  Chapter 10. Individual Differences Among Skilled Readers: The Role of Lexical Quality

  Theories of visual word recognition and reading have been based on averaged data from relatively small samples of skilled readers, reflecting an implicit assumption that all skilled readers read in the same way. This chapter reviews evidence of systematic individual differences in the early stages of lexical retrieval among samples of above-average readers that challenges this assumption. Individual differences in patterns of masked priming and parafoveal processing during sentence reading provide evidence of variability in the precision and coherence of lexical knowledge that are consistent with Perfetti’s (2007) construct of lexical quality. This evidence is compatible with neuroimaging evidence that literacy drives the development of specialized neural systems for processing written words. Understanding these dimensions of individual differences among expert readers has important implications for future refinements of theories of visual word recognition and reading.

  Chapter 11. What Does Acquired Dyslexia Tell Us About Reading in the Mind and Brain?

  Reading is a fundamental cognitive skill that is often disrupted as a consequence of brain damage. The study of neurological patients with acquired reading disorders has proven pivotal in development of theoretical accounts of normal reading. This work initially involved a focus on cases of dissociation between reading and other cognitive functions using single-case methodology. This evidence was influential in the formation of dual-route models of reading aloud, which employ localist representations. More recent work has used simultaneous consideration of multiple cases to reveal associations between reading and other cognitive functions. This evidence has been captured by connectionist triangle models of reading aloud, which rely on learned distributed representations. Neuroimaging of patients with acquired dyslexia has provided insights into the mechanisms of dysfunction and the neural basis of normal reading. Consideration of neuropsychological patient data has highlighted the role of more basic perceptual and cognitive processes in skilled reading.

  Chapter 12. Literacy and Literacy Development in Bilinguals

  The first part of the chapter reviews the literature on reading in adult bilinguals, and the second part reviews the literature on reading development. The focus of the review is on how knowledge of one language influences reading in the other language. In the literature on adult bilinguals, most research on this issue has been on word recognition, with fewer studies on sentence processing and fewer still on text reading. A model of bilingual word recognition is discussed. In the literature on child bilinguals, the focus has been on predictors of reading development in the second language. Only a few studies have investigated how bilingual children represent and process their two languages. Several theoretical proposals regarding bilingual language development are discussed.

  Chapter 13. The Role of Sound in Silent Reading

  This chapter discusses whether sound is involved in the process of skilled (and apparently silent) reading of words and texts, and, if so, how. The term “phonological coding” encompasses a broad variety of phenomena, including inner speech and subvocalization. In the research on single-word encoding, the focus has largely been on the level of phonemic coding, and the controversies have largely been about whether readers do this encoding with something like a rule-governed process or by learning correlations between visual and auditory patterns. The chapter also reviews the large literature that examines phonological coding in reading sentences and text using eye-movement methodology, including display change techniques. Other aspects of phonological coding discussed include its role to mark stress and its role in short-term memory to facilitate the reading of text. In addition, the chapter attempts to clarify the relationship between phonological coding and subvocalization.

  Chapter 14. Reading Sentences: Syntactic Parsing and Semantic Interpretation

  Understanding what we read requires constructing a representation of each sentence’s syntactic structure and meaning. We are generally not consciously aware of the complex cognitive operations that underlie these processes. However, researchers have been able to learn a great deal about these operations by using methods such as eye tracking during reading and recording of event-related potentials (ERPs). This chapter provides a broad overview of some of the main theoretical issues and empirical conclusions in this area, focusing on the following questions: How rapidly do we perform syntactic and semantic analysis in the course of reading? Do we construct more than one syntactic analysis at a time? Does syntactic analysis always precede semantic interpretation? What role does memory play in sentence processing? Finally, how do these sentence-level processes relate to the process of visual word recognition itself?